Ethnolinguistics
:"Ethnolinguistics (sometimes called cultural linguistics)1 is a field of linguistics that studies the relationship between language and culture and how different ethnic groups perceive the world. It is the combination between ethnology and linguistics. The former refers to the way of life of an entire community: all the characteristics that distinguish one community from the other. Such characteristics make the cultural aspects of a community or a society. :Ethnolinguists study the way perception and conceptualization influences language and show how that is linked to different cultures and societies. An example is how spatial orientation is expressed in various cultures.23 In many societies, words for the cardinal directions east and west are derived from terms for sunrise/sunset. The nomenclature for cardinal directions of Inuit speakers of Greenland, however, is based on geographical landmarks such as the river system and one's position on the coast. Similarly, the Yurok lack the idea of cardinal directions; they orient themselves with respect to their principal geographic feature, the Klamath River. :Cultural Linguistics is a related branch of linguistics that explores the relationship between language and cultural conceptualisations.4 Cultural Linguistics draws on and expands the theoretical and analytical advancements in cognitive science (including complexity science and distributed cognition) and anthropology." Linguistics *Theoretical linguistics *Descriptive linguistics Ethnolinguistic groups Race is a biological fallacy, but ethnolinguistic groups often maintain discernable features (dark/pale skin, blond/red hair, lactose-(in/)tolerance, melanin surplus/deficiency, etc.) which can be categorised (and learned) as 'biological race' implying as a certain fixed and undeniable truth about the human species (as opposed to sets of geographically distributed relatives of the same species who have spent the last 3-7 thousand generations of our species' evolution in disaporic geographies as humans spread north-east and beyond from our mitochondrial 'garden of Eden' - East Africa see . Random Thoughts (2001) Jayabaya :"Maharaja Jayabhaya adalah Raja Kediri yang memerintah sekitar tahun 1135-1157. Nama gelar lengkapnya adalah Sri Maharaja Sang Mapanji Jayabhaya Sri Warmeswara Madhusudana Awataranindita Suhtrisingha Parakrama Uttunggadewa." :(Emperor Jayabhaya was the King of Kediri who ruled about 1135-1157. His full title is Sri Maharaja The Blessed One Jayabhaya Sri Warmeswara Madhusudana Awataranindita Suhtrisingha Parakrama Uttunggadewa .)" (conspiracy Youtube in Indonesian) :Common languages Old Javanese, Sanskrit :Religion Kejawen, Hinduism, Buddhism, Animism :Government Monarchy :Raja• 1104–1115, Jayawarsa• 1200–1222, Kertajaya :History • Airlangga divided his kingdom into Janggala and Panjalu (Kediri) 1045 • Kertajaya defeat to Ken Arok of Tumapel 1221 Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms Rise of Muslim states Christian kingdom European colonisation Emergence of Indonesia :"Kediri or Kadiri (also known as Panjalu) was a Hindu Javanese Kingdom based in East Java from 1042 to around 1222. Despite the lack of archaeological remains, the age of Kediri saw much development in classical literature.1 Mpu Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, Mpu Panuluh's Gatotkacasraya, and Mpu Dharmaja's Smaradhana blossomed in this era. The kingdom's capital is believed to have been established in the western part of the Brantas River valley, somewhere near modern Kediri city and surrounding Kediri Regency. :"The name "Kediri" or "Kadiri" derived from Sanskrit word Khadri which means Indian Mulberry (Morinda citrifolia), locally known as pacé or mengkudu tree. The bark of morinda produces a brownish-purplish dye for batik-making, while its fruit have medicinal values. Similar named city also known, Kadiri in Andhra Pradesh, India. The kingdom was also known as Panjalu as the twin kingdom with Jenggala. During the reign of Jayakatwang that revived the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri, the kingdom is also known as Gelang-gelang or Gegelang. Other than Kadiri, the kingdom was also often referred to as Daha or Dahana, after its capital. The name "Daha" was used in later Majapahit period, as the seat of rival court of Trowulan." :"Sri Aji Joyoboyo is said to have hundreds of predictions about the future of the archipelago. He predicted the Archipelago from the time of the collapse of the Kediri Kingdom until now. Among the hundreds, there are eight predictions that are often associated with events in the country. :The eight predictions are Murcaning Noyogenggong Sabdopalon, Semut Ireng Calf Calves, Kebo Nyabrang Kali, Saumur Corn Karo Wong Midget, Pitik Tarung Sak Kandang, Ijo Ongkang-ongkang, Rat Pithi Anoto Baris and Reoyarnation of Noyogenggong Sabo Palon." AraboIslamic and AraboJudaic groups :Date February/March, 627 AD Location Fortress of Banu Qurayza Result Muslim Victory :"The Invasion of Banu Qurayza1 took place in the Dhul Qa‘dah during February and March of 627 AD (5 AH). :The Banu Qurayza initially told the Muslims that they were allied to them during the Battle of the Trench, however, later they sided with the Pagan Arabs of Quraysh and their allies. According to traditional sources, Jewish leaders organized efforts against Muhammad and the Muslims. Three Jewish leaders from the tribe of Banu al-Nadir, three Jewish leaders from the tribe of Wa'il, and various other Jewish groups and leaders united and pressured Banu Qurayza to betray their agreement to Muhammad. Afzalur Rahman states that during the Battle of the Trench, when the Muslims were surrounded by a large hostile force, the Banu Qurayza joined the enemies of the Muslims and threatened the Muslims from within the town itself. Waqidi claims that Muhammad had a treaty with the tribe which was torn apart. Norman Stillman and Watt believe such a treaty was "doubtful" to have existed, though Watt believes the Qurayza had agreed not to assist Muhammad's enemies against him. According to Mubrakpuri, Peters, Stillman, Guillaume, Inamdar and Ibn Kathir, on the day of the Meccans' withdrawal Muhammad led his forces against Banu Qurayza. According to Muslim tradition he had been ordered to do so by God. :The Banu Qurayza, a Jewish tribe, were besieged for 25 days until they surrendered. According to Mohammed al-Ghazali, during that time the Muslims allowed the Jews who had refused to betray the Prophet during the Battle of the Ditch to leave and "go wherever they wished". Sa'd ibn Mu'adh, a companion of Muhammad, was chosen by him as an arbiter and all parties agreed to abide by his judgment. Sa'd gave his verdict that "the men should be killed, the property divided, and the women and children taken as captives". Muhammad approved of the ruling, calling it similar to God's judgment, after which nearly all male members of the tribe who had reached puberty were beheaded. The Muslim jurist Tabari quotes 600–900 being executed. The Sunni hadith do not give the number killed, but state that all pubescent males were killed and one woman. :According to Ibn Kathir, Quranic verses 33:26-27 and 33:9-10 are about the attack against the Banu Qurayza." :"Despite Nazi German attitudes on the racial inferiority of the inhabitants of the Middle East, Reza Shah leaned in sympathy towards Germany, since, unlike Great Britain or the Soviet Union, Germany did not have a past record of interfering in internal Iranian affairs or occupying Iranian territory. Reza Shah intended to learn about political management and industrial technology from Germany. He also wanted to decrease trade with the Soviet Union. By 1940–1941, nearly half of all Iranian imports came from Germany; 42% of all Iranian exports went there. :The Persian department of Nazi Germany’s propaganda radio service, Radio Zeesen, aired programs drawing on Islamic religious themes, since Nazi race-based antisemitism and nationalism did not resonate with Iranian audiences. Among the themes of German propaganda was the notion that Hitler was the Shiite Messiah, or Twelfth Imam, who had returned to destroy the Jews and communists." Biology Mitochondrial Descension :"In human genetics, the Mitochondrial Eve (also mt-Eve, mt-MRCA) is the matrilineal most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of all living humans, i.e., the most recent woman from whom all living humans descend in an unbroken line purely through their mothers and through the mothers of those mothers, back until all lines converge on one woman. :In terms of mitochondrial haplogroups, the mt-MRCA is situated at the divergence of macro-haplogroup L into L0 and L1–6. As of 2013, estimates on the age of this split ranged at around 150,000 years ago, consistent with a date later than the speciation of Homo sapiens but earlier than the recent out-of-Africa dispersal. :The male analog to the "Mitochondrial Eve" is the "Y-chromosomal Adam" (or Y-MRCA), the individual from whom all living humans are patrilineally descended. As the identity of both matrilineal and patrilineal MRCAs is dependent on genealogical history (pedigree collapse), they need not have lived at the same time. As of 2013, estimates for the age Y-MRCA are subject to substantial uncertainty, with a wide range of times from 180,000 to 580,000 years ago (with an estimated age of between 120,000 and 156,000 years ago, roughly consistent with the estimate for mt-MRCA.). The name "Mitochondrial Eve" alludes to biblical Eve, which has led to repeated misrepresentations or misconceptions in journalistic accounts on the topic. Popular science presentations of the topic usually point out such possible misconceptions by emphasizing the fact that the position of mt-MRCA is neither fixed in time (as the position of mt-MRCA moves forward in time as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages become extinct), nor does it refer to a "first woman", nor the only living female of her time, nor the first member of a "new species". :"Contemporary human mtDNA haplogroup distribution, based on analysis of 2,054 individuals from 26 populations. (a) Pie charts on the map. (b) Counts of haplogroups in table format. For populations details, see 1000 Genomes Project#Human genome samples. In human genetics, a human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup is a haplogroup defined by differences in human mitochondrial DNA. Haplogroups are used to represent the major branch points on the mitochondrial phylogenetic tree. Understanding the evolutionary path of the female lineage has helped population geneticists trace the matrilineal inheritance of modern humans back to human origins in Africa and the subsequent spread around the globe." Population genetics Haplogroup / Haplotype / Subclade Most recent common ancestor DNA haplogroups :"Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and between populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and population structure. :Population genetics was a vital ingredient in the emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis. Its primary founders were Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane and Ronald Fisher, who also laid the foundations for the related discipline of quantitative genetics. Traditionally a highly mathematical discipline, modern population genetics encompasses theoretical, lab, and field work. Population genetic models are used both for statistical inference from DNA sequence data and for proof/disproof of concept. :What sets population genetics apart today from newer, more phenotypic approaches to modelling evolution, such as evolutionary game theory and adaptive dynamics, is its emphasis on genetic phenomena as dominance, epistasis, and the degree to which genetic recombination breaks up linkage disequilibrium. This makes it appropriate for comparison to population genomics data. ---- }} Category:Human Culture Category:Linguistics Category:Race Category:Biology Category:Human Quantum Computing